TYPES AND DYNAMICS OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

While domestic violence can manifest in a variety of manners and severity, the CDC (2022b) has identified four types of domestic violence (or intimate partner violence). These may occur separately or together.

• Physical violence: An attempt to injure or actually injuring a partner by kicking, hitting, or using a type of physical force
• Sexual violence: An attempt to force a partner or actually forcing a partner to participate in any type of sex act or sexual event when the partner does not or cannot consent to the act or event
• Stalking: Repeated and undesired attention or contact from a partner that results in fear or concern in the victim for their own safety or the safety of someone to whom the victim feels close
• Psychological harm or aggression: The use of any type of communication that is intended to cause psychological (emotional) harm to a person or to exercise control over that person

These types of violence are perpetrated by a current or former partner or spouse and can occur among couples of all genders. The definition of intimate partner violence does not require sexual intimacy (CDC, 2021).

Research indicates that domestic violence occurs in a three-phase cycle:

1. A period of increasing tension, leading to verbal and physical abuse
2. An acute battering incident
3. A “honeymoon” period of calm and remorse in which the abuser is kind and loving and begs for forgiveness

When stress and conflict begin to build, the cruel cycle begins again. Over time, the first two phases grow longer and the honeymoon phase diminishes (Walker, 2017).

Physical Violence

The CDC defines physical violence as “the intentional use of physical force with the potential for causing death, disability, injury, or harm. Physical violence includes, but is not limited to: scratching, pushing, shoving, throwing, grabbing, biting, choking, shaking, hair-pulling, slapping, punching, hitting, burning, use of a weapon (gun, knife, or other object), and use of restraints or one’s body, size, or strength against another person. Physical violence also includes coercing other people to commit any of the above acts” (Breiding et al., 2015).

Sexual Violence

There are five categories of sexual violence as identified by the CDC. These include:

• Rape or penetration of the victim. This includes attempted rape or penetration that is drug-facilitated or forced.
• Forcing the victim to penetrate another person. This act also includes alcohol- or drug-facilitated incidents.
• Unwanted penetration of the victim by the use of nonphysical methods such as verbal pressure or abuse of authority.
• Unwanted sexual contact in which the perpetrator touches the victim or forces the victim to touch the perpetrator either directly or through the clothing without the victim’s consent. The areas of the body involved in the definition include genitalia, buttocks, anus, groin, inner thigh, and breast.
• Unwanted noncontact sexual experiences, such as exposure to pornography, sexual harassment, filming or photography, and threats of sexual violence.
  (Breiding et al., 2015)

Psychological Aggression

Psychological aggression is defined by the CDC as “the use of verbal and nonverbal communication with the intent to harm another person mentally or emotionally, and/or to exert control over another person” (Breiding et al., 2015). This form of abuse may include name-calling, humiliation, and control over finances, transportation, and access to family and friends.

It may also include reproductive coercion, such as deliberately exposing a partner to sexually transmitted infections (STIs); attempting to impregnate a partner against her will (by damaging condoms or throwing away birth control pills, also called birth control sabotage); threats or acts of violence if the partner does not comply with the perpetrator’s wishes concerning the decision to terminate or continue a pregnancy; as well as threats or acts of violence if the partner refuses to have sex.

Psychological aggressors may exploit vulnerabilities of the victim, such as immigration status or disabilities, or present false information to the victim with the intent of causing victims to doubt their memories or perceptions.

Stalking and Cyberstalking

The U.S. Department of Justice Office on Violence Against Women (2023b) identifies several types of unwanted stalking behaviors that would cause a reasonable person to experience fear for personal safety or the safety of others or to suffer emotional distress.

Identified behaviors that are experienced by stalking victims include the major categories of surveillance, life invasion intimidation, and interference (SLII):

• Receiving unwanted phone calls
• Receiving unsolicited or unwanted letters or emails
• Being followed or spied on
• Having the stalker show up at places without a legitimate reason
• Having the stalker wait at places for the victim
• Receiving unwanted items, presents, or flowers
• Having information or rumors about the victim posted on the Internet, in a public place, or by word of mouth
• Planting a tracking device
• Monitoring online activity
• Contacting family or friends
• Accessing social media or online financial accounts
  (SPARC, 2023)

Although these acts individually may not be criminal, collectively and repetitively they may cause a victim to fear for their safety or the safety of a family member.